By 1918 there was general agreement that a League Essays - Structure

By 1918 there was general understanding that a League of Nations ought to be set up. The key articles of the genuine contract (constitution) explained the job of the alliance in recognizing and tending to dangers to harmony, the settlement of debates, and the burden of authorizations against states abusing global understandings. These articles occasioned restricted difference. Taking part countries likewise by and large concurred that the alliance ought to be comprised of an official gathering, a deliberative get together, and a regulatory secretariat, yet they differ over the specific capacity and cosmetics of these bodies. In an early draft of the agreement, enrollment of the gathering was confined to the Great Powers and any littler country expresses that the Great Powers decided to welcome. Be that as it may, the definition that in the long run won assigned the Great Powers as changeless individuals from the chamber while little powers had nonpermanent participation. The activity and enrollment of the get together, which was the model for the General Assembly of the United Nations after 1945, was additionally a subject of some discussion. Truth be told, its general activity and importance was extremely just worked out in resulting years. The regulatory secretariat, set up as a planning and managerial body, was a less troublesome issue. Its capacity was grounded altogether in the gathering and the get together. The base camp of the association were in Geneva, Switzerland, where the secretariat arranged reports and plans. The get together, which was comprised of agents of all the part governments, set approach and met on a yearly premise. England, France, Italy, and Japan held perpetual enrollment in the gathering, which met more normally than the get together. All choices taken by the gathering and the get together must be consistent if they somehow managed to be official. The association additionally incorporated various auxiliary associations. One of these , the International Labor Organization (ILO) was a particular reaction to the Russian Revolution. It was trusted that the ILO would conciliate a portion of the more extreme propensities inside the worker's guild development in different pieces of the world and shorten the attractions of universal socialism. A Permanent Court of International Justice was additionally set up, just as a scope of commissions that managed issues, for example, evacuees, wellbeing, medications, and youngster government assistance. At the hour of its establishment in 1919 the association had forty-two part governments. This expanded to fifty-five by 1926; be that as it may, the disappointment of the United States to turn into a part contributed fundamentally to the decay of the association by the 1930s. In the mean time, Germany just turned into a part in 1926 and pulled back in 1933, while the Soviet Union was just a part from 1934 to 1939. The Japanese government withdrew in 1933, and the Italian governme nt finished its relationship with the association in 1937.

How to Write a Research Paper - From YouTube Lectures

How to Write a Research Paper - From YouTube LecturesAs a student I have often asked myself how to write a research paper. Why should I, as a student write a research paper? Why shouldn't I?Learning how to write a research paper is important. And while I believe in all the students that are reading this I do not know how many of you know the answer to this question. So, here it is, let's discuss.There is a very powerful and obvious reason why the school system has become so heavily weighted in favor of testing. To test and score, to see which kid has the greatest potential and then move them to the top. The testing system is extremely useful for society in general, and has helped to mold society by quantifying various human attributes and the abilities that can be used for such quantification.And this is where I get so confused about the importance of writing to me and why my resource usage is so biased towards what society wants from me. When I go to college, I know that society wil l expect me to write a research paper because that is what they ask for. Why should I care about writing a research paper? I just need to pass the course, it is not going to make or break my future.But when I watch YouTube lectures, I notice that the researchers there show an almost Zen like attitude towards their own work. They are driven by passion, they are driven by the desire to help people and they really do make a difference. They are not just there to see if they can pass the course or how long they can survive on there. They are there to provide an amazing experience for the viewer.The majority of the people who do not have a university degree will watch these videos, but they will probably find it very difficult to write a research paper, especially if they were under tremendous pressure in high school. This pressure is not going to disappear overnight. But if you keep working hard, not only for yourself but for others and it shows in your videos, you will start to make a huge difference in the lives of many people.The internet has been a revolution of the publishing industry, and not only has it changed the way we look at books, newspapers and magazines, but it has also changed the way we look at YouTube. This was a revolutionary idea to the media industry in the mid-90s, because when they first started doing their research they were looking at them as another form of advertising. And when people first started watching these videos, they saw a whole different world, a whole new experience, something that had never existed before. If you didn't have any education in this, you probably still don't.The next time you want to learn how to write a research paper, try watching YouTube lectures and think about how much power you have by being able to provide that experience for others. And I know how much it feels to hear about how my classmates struggle to understand how to write a research paper. You should too.

Essay Writing Services - How to Get The Best Results

Essay Writing Services - How to Get The Best ResultsWhen you are looking for cheap custom essay writing services, make sure you know how to get the best results. The custom essay writing services market is massive and filled with a huge range of choices. To help you, here are some of the guidelines you can follow to ensure that you get the best results.Use a free service: While it is true that most writing companies charge a minimal fee for their services, this is not always the case. Many free service providers offer special packages at very low prices. It would be great if you could avail of one of these services. However, do not use free services to get the best results.Make use of an online writing program: There are programs that are specifically designed to make writing essays easier. These programs allow you to search for words and sentences based on certain criteria. These criteria determine what kind of questions to ask yourself in order to find the perfect solutions. You ca n easily choose between different styles and options that will serve you well in writing your essay.Choose a unique essay topic: Different topics will require different skills and approach. Therefore, you need to understand the main objective of your essay in order to make it complete. Then, you need to select the specific questions that are relevant to the overall purpose of your essay.Create a structure: When you have written your essay, make sure you know what your final goal is. From this point, you can then design your essay topic in such a way that you can achieve your final goal. By knowing the purpose, you can then focus on the style that will serve you well.Use analysis tools: To give yourself the best results, you should always use analysis tools in order to analyze your essay's structure. Analyzing your essay's structure will give you ideas on how to improve the quality of your essay. This will make the process easier for you and help you focus on the important areas.Look for companies that offer essay writing services that are user-friendly: You should always look for custom essay writing services that are user-friendly. A lot of writing companies have complex forms that may take a lot of time and effort to fill out. If you are a newbie or do not have much time to waste, you should avoid using such companies.Choose a company that provides you essay assistance and guidance: There are many companies that provide assistance and guidance to people who are just starting with their writing projects. These companies can help you when you encounter difficulties and problems in writing your essay. To ensure that you get the best results, you should always take advice from experts.

Foster Care and Substance Abuse - 3763 Words

Running head: THE FOSTER CARE AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE The Association Between Foster Care and Substance Abuse Risk Factors and Treatment Outcomes: An Exploratory Secondary Analysis Sharon H. Stoess Grand Canyon University NRS-433V March 27, 2011 The Association Between Foster Care and Substance Abuse Risk Factors and Treatment Outcomes: An Exploratory Secondary Analysis â€Å"The child welfare and substance abuse systems are integrally linked through the children and families they serve (Blome, W., Shields, J., amp; Verdieck, M., 2009). There is a dearth of knowledge, however, on how children who have experienced foster care fare when they are treated for substance abuse issues as adults† (Blome, W., Shields, J., amp; Verdieck,†¦show more content†¦It is imperative to know what the actual facts are. â€Å"Studies have shown that adverse childhood experiences, including abuse, neglect, domestic violence, and household substance abuse, increase the likelihood of early initiation of drug use by two to four times† (Dube, Felitti, Dong, Chapman, Giles, amp; Anda, 2003). â€Å"Interviews with 320 adolescents in foster care found approximately 40% used alcohol, 35% reported marijuana use, and 25% described using both in the prior six months (Thompson amp; Auslander, 2007). â€Å"Youths who have been in foster care used illicit drugs at a higher rate than youths who have never been in foster care, but they were also more likely to have received treatment† (National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2005). â€Å"Merging educational and child welfare databases from a Midwestern state showed that only one in five of these youths demonstrated the skills necessary to pass the reading, math and science standardized tests† (Coleman, 2004). â€Å"Among youths who stayed in foster care until the age of emancipation (18 to 21 depending on the state), more than one-third earned neither a high school diploma nor a GED (Courtney amp; Dworsky, 2005). Foster care childrenShow MoreRelatedSubstance Abuse : An Individual s Life1608 Words   |  7 PagesSubstance abuse can be very detrimental to an individual’s life. According to the World Health Organization, substance abuse is defined as, â€Å"the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances, including alcohol and illicit drugs† (2015) . It does not matter what type of substance a person abuses, any one of them can alter one’s perception, judgement, and physical control, which leads a person being destructive in the future. If a person is fully dependent on a substance, by the time they withdrawRead MoreThe Effects Of Substance Abuse On Children1443 Words   |  6 Pagessubstance it can lead to impairment or distress in many different ways such as, â€Å"recurrent substance use resulting in a failure to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or home, recurrent substance use in situations in which it is physically hazardous, recurrent substance-related legal problems, continued substance use despite having persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of the substance† (Susic, 2007). According to the Foster CareRead MoreHow Family Preservation Is A Service Help Keep Children At Home With Their Families1470 Words   |  6 PagesThe case plan, i n a sense, does follow the principles of family preservation. Downs, Moore, and McFadden (2009) describe how family preservation is a service to help keep children at home with their families rather than in foster homes or institutions (p.243). This service was a reaction to the earlier practice of family breakup, which pulled children out of unfit homes (Downs et al., 2009, p. 282). The services are designed to support families by improving parenting and family functioning whileRead MoreThe Effects Of Parental Substance Abuse On Children Essay1573 Words   |  7 PagesGrowing up in the household under substances influence can cause severe damage to the child. Parental substance abuse has a significant impact on family function, and it may also contribute to child maltreatment. It heightens the risks to both of the physical and emotional safety of the children, and it generates children’s problematic outcomes. Children who grow up in such families may also experience mental health issues, social isolation, financial difficulties, and exposure to stressful lifeRead MoreThe Development Of Foster Care Systems1714 Words   |  7 PagesThe development of foster care systems has long been an issue in the United States. It was developed as sort of a safe haven for children to go when their family life and environmental conditions were not in the best interests of the child (Lawrence, Carlson, and Egeland, 2006). As of the year 2010, there were more than 400,000 youths in the United States who were placed into foster homes (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2011). There are a number of factors that have been associatedRead MoreAging Out of Foster Care Essay1272 Words   |  6 Pagesall teens feel the same joy about this coming of age. For the hundreds of thousands of children living in foster care in the United States, this new found freedom brings anxiety and fear. Where will they live after turning 18? How will they get the medications they may need? How will they find a job with little to no experience? How will they put themselves through school? Aging out of foster care is a serious issue among America’s youth. Every year, 20,000 children will age out with nowhere to go,Read MoreChild Is A Boy Or Girl?1730 Words   |  7 Pagesto do so she herself must be stable. In situations of neglect it more times than others as a result of an unstable mother due to the leading cause of substance abuse quickly followed by mental health issues or poverty. According to Donohue et al, 2014, â€Å" more than 8 million children in the united states have at least one parent who abuses substances, with the percentage of women evidencing severe levels of illicit drug use increasingly relative to me†(p. 707). Women are also under additional strainRead MoreThe Outlook For Children Foster Care During The U.s. Is Cause For Alarm ( Zetlin, Macleod, Essay1567 Words   |  7 PagesThe outlook for children in foster care in the U .S. is cause for alarm (Zetlin, MacLeod, Kimm, 2012). Foster youth, otherwise known as youth who are ward of the court, are one of the most at risk populations in areas such as physical and emotional health, juvenile delinquencies and educational achievement. This is primarily due to factors such as disruptive a history of abuse, school changes, social stigma and isolation, lack of educational supports, disproportionately high rates of special educationRead MoreAbuse in Foster Care Essay1089 Words   |  5 Pagespublic care have experienced abuse and neglect, and many have potentially been exposed to domestic violence, parental mental illness and substance abuse† (Dregan and Gulliford). These children are being placed into foster care so that they can get away from home abuse, not so they can move closer towards it. The foster children’s varied outcomes of what their adult lives are is because of the different experiences they grew up with in their foster homes. The o ne-third of those other foster childrenRead MoreEssay On Mental Health Treatment Program1560 Words   |  7 Pagesprovide comprehensive behavioral healthcare to homeless women who have severe, persistent mental illness, or with co-occurring substance abuse and mental illness’. The organizations Mental Health treatment program stakeholders are accredited and affiliated, in which this aide the program to express its values, carry out its mission, develop strategies and improve the quality of care on a continuous basis. These stakeholders are a part of the Florida Council for community Mental Health, NAMI (National Alliance

Living Together Before Marriage - 1011 Words

Living Together Before Marriage As the rate of divorce soars and as increasing numbers of marriages disintegrate, living together has become the popular alternative to many people in north America. Expersts estimate that roughly 2.2 million people are currently sharing bed and board in a live-in arrangement, this is approximately 1% of the total population.(Family. Comptoms Encyclopedia. 1992 ed.) Living together, more formally known as non marital cohabitation, is an emerging lifestyle. In fact, More than one fourth of all unmarried couples living together in the early 1980 s were between 25 and 34 years old, and an additional 19 percent were 45 and over.(Today s Families.Detroit Free Press 18 October 1995: B17.)†¦show more content†¦This sharing of expenses can be very beneficial to a young couple who may not be financially well off. For many, non-marital cohabitation is used by the couple as a private support system, providing emotional, and physical support. The emotional and physical support can be a valuable asset to the couple as many cohabitors are young and trying to find their own niche in the difficult career world. The support that an individual can get from their partner can be very comforting to them, and can be a good stepping stone from dependence on their families to independence. Many experts claim that the loosely structured arrangement instills a sense of independence while establishing resources of support; marital decisions are postponed until a greater degree of maturity and occupational independence is secured (Pearce, Jack M. Modern Day Marriages. New York: Abel-Hils,1990.) The security from the emotional and physical support experienced by many cohabitors can help them concentrate on his or her career aspirations without: the frustration of divided energies among dating, career development, and economical survival. The burden of living can bee shared as the couple pursue personal goal and ambitions. Living together, for example, can provide a harried student with emotional, physical, and sometimes economic support from a sympathetic partner. (Pearce, Jack M. Modern Day Marriages. New York: Abel- Hils,1990.)Show MoreRelatedLiving Together Before Marriage1475 Words   |  6 Pagesgetter- Your daughter of 26 is fast approaching the average age for marriage in the United States. One day she tells you that she and her boyfriend are thinking about living together, and she wants to know if you think this is a good idea. What do you say? What is the informed response? Background- About a quarter of women move in with a romantic partner before the age of 20, and more women than ever live with a partner before they get married, according to a new report by the National Center forRead MoreLiving Together Before Marriage997 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿SPEECH #2: Deciding Whether or not to Live Together before Marriage Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about making decisions on whether or not to live together before marriage. Thesis: Deciding whether or not to live together before marriage is an important decision to make that has both negative and positive consequences depending on which side you choose. I. Introduction: A. Marriage is like fine win, if tended to properly, it gets better with age. According to Neil Shah, â€Å"In theRead MoreLiving Together Before Marriage901 Words   |  4 PagesLiving together before making our vows would have reassured us about a lifelong commitment. From my own experience, I believe that couples should live together before getting married, so they can start to know each other on a closer, more personal level; moreover, they can start thinking about the compatibility of their future spouse. Couples start knowing each other on a closer, more personal level when they live together, which prepares them for a married lifestyle. For startersRead MoreLiving Together Before Marriage And Marriage2618 Words   |  11 PagesLiving Together Before Marriage Should we consider moving in before getting married? In the New York Times Magazine, the article The Downside of Cohabiting before Marriage states that â€Å"In 1960, about 450,000 unmarried couples lived together. Now the number is more than 7.5 million. The majority of young adults in their 20s will live with a romantic partner at least once, and more than half of all marriages will be preceded by cohabitation†. (1) Considering moving in with your partner before marriageRead MoreEssay on Living Together Before Marriage961 Words   |  4 Pages Living Together Before Marriage As the rate of divorce soars and as increasing numbers of marriages disintegrate, living together has become the popular alternative to many people in north America. Expersts estimate that roughly 2.2 million people are currently sharing bed and board in a live-in arrangement, this is approximately 1% of the total population.(Family. Comptoms Encyclopedia. 1992 ed.) Living together, more formally known as non marital cohabitation, is an emerging lifestyleRead MoreEssay on Living Together Before Marriage629 Words   |  3 PagesLiving together is certainly a learning experience. I am the example of a combined household, prior to a legal union. A couple who chooses to live together without getting married can have an advantage going into a future marriage. I met my husband while on a previous job. I lived in Fort Oglethorpe, and he lived in Red Bank. After a long day at work, the challenge of spending time together became difficult because we each had a residence to maintain. We soon realized that living together,Read MoreEssay on Problems With Living Together Before Marriage1129 Words   |  5 Pagesdivorce papers and cannot hide the sadness and confusion she feels. Two years ago everyone told her living with her boyfriend was a great idea. They said she would be able to get to know him better and see if marriage would work. She trusted her friends and thought that since everyone else was doing it that it must be the wisest choice. What went wrong? Why was she unhappy with her marriage even after getting to know her husband through cohabitation? Would things have been different if sheRead Moreterm paper about living together before marriage1464 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿LIVING TOGETHER BEFORE MARRIAGE The human being and their society are always constant motion. In modern life, there are new tendencies which a lot of different than traditional countries appear. One of aspects changed quickly all over the world is love, marriage and family. A flower cannot without sunshine and man cannot live without love. (Max Muller) Love is a sacred and wonderful sentiment. In generation past, marriage and living together forever are a last destination of loveRead MoreNot So Happily Ever After968 Words   |  4 Pagesof living together either early in a dating relationship, a more serious commitment with one another before the ring happens, or if couples may not believe in the institution of marriage to make the commitment real. All these arguments have been seen in the way that society has progressed into this way of thinking. However, living together before marriage does not appear to be the way to have a safe and stable relationship that builds into a marriage or a lasting relationship. Living together beforeRead MoreCohabitation Is Defined As A Man And Woman Living1713 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract Cohabitation is defined as a man and woman living in the same household and having sexual relations while not being married. There is relatively little data on health outcomes for people who have cohabitated, although there is some evidence that cohabitating couples have lower incomes (15% of cohabitating men are jobless while 8% of married men are jobless) and there may be negative academic effects for children of cohabitating mothers (Jay, 2012). Cohabitation rates are highest among those

Occupational Therapy and Clinical Reasoning - 1993 Words

Clinical Reasoning Clinical Reasoning is an essential part of the assessment, treatment and evaluation process in occupational therapy (Neistadt, 1996). This reasoning is the skill set that the occupational therapist draws from when working with clients in related to function and performance. Neistadt (1996) suggested that clinical reasoning is the combination of five interacting components (Ward, 2003). This will be explained in the following essay and applied to a case study about a girl named Maria. Narrative Reasoning The first form of reasoning to be used will be the narrative reasoning. This will address Maria’s occupational story. It considers temporal aspects such as the client’s history and identifies what needs to change to accommodate occupational engagement in the future (Neistadt, 1996). Maria is fifteen years old. Her mother reports that Maria has been performing poorly in school and has withdrawn from her family. This began after her transition to secondary school. Her performance further deteriorated when she began second year. Maria stopped participating in a number of her occupations including hockey, playing the piano, the girl guides, shopping with friends and going to the cinema. She now prefers to stay on the computer of listening to music. Maria previously had a good relationship with her younger siblings. However, she has disengaged from these relationships. She has also been distant from her friends Caoimhe and Meabh, preferring to spend time in herShow MoreRelatedThe Occupational Therapy Theories And Educational Learning Essay1337 Words   |  6 PagesThe occupational therapy theories are the basis and foundation that are used to guide and influence an occupational therapist’s clinical reasoning. Similarly, understanding how one views teaching and learning is beneficial to occupational therapists as it too can guide and influence future practice and interactions with clients. Occupational therapy theories and educational learning and teaching assumptions are not two completely different or opposite concepts, but instead can complement each otherRead MoreClical Reasoning as Described by Neistdadt1819 Words   |  7 PagesAccoIntroduction The aim of this essay is to explore the Clinical reasoning thinking frame as described by Neistadt (1996). Clinical reasoning is a set of skill performed by occupational therapists which are central to practice and involved throughout the Occupational therapy process (Neistadt, 1996, AOTA, 2008). This will be done in relation to our case study of which the protagonist is Hugh, a 70 year old widower and retired baker, who was managing well an episode of depression but has recentlyRead MoreQuestions On Health Insurance Coverage856 Words   |  4 Pagesthese 100 days, he will receive physical therapy addressing his lower limb strength, balance and gait. Occupational therapist will address his activities of daily living limited after the hip replacement, in case of any adaptations needed to achieve independence. Speech therapist will address any swallowing problems or cognitive issues per age. Mr. Smith will be followed up every week by his level of participation. This is monitored bas ed time he spends in therapy and the progress he makes. The higherRead MoreThe Clinical Experience Of An Emergency Homeless Shelter For Young Men1202 Words   |  5 PagesUsually the fieldwork clinical experience is done in which a student is placed under the direct supervision by an established on-site occupational therapy practitioner (Mattila Dolhi, 2016). Over the past ten years, there has been a shift in occupational therapy concerning emerging practice areas and non-traditional settings, where occupational therapy services are not currently provided (Mattila Dolhi, 2016). These various types of settings support the shift toward wellness and recovery, psychosocialRead MoreReflective Thinking : A Component Of Critical Thinking1594 Words   |  7 Pagesthat involves us becoming more aware of why we perceive things, the way we feel, act and do† (Phan, 2009). As the demand increases for students to demonstrate course material through hands on application, it is imperativ e for students to acquire clinical competency and effective critical thinking and decision-making skills. Through the use of HPS, students are offered a sequence and set of instructional practices that create conditions for practice in a mock work world. For example, experientialRead MoreClinical Case Study and the WHO Disablement Model Essay641 Words   |  3 PagesCLINICAL SCENARIO: Conceptual models, specifically disablement models have been used for many years within the medical field to help guide clinical reasoning and the delivery of evidence based practice throughout the continuum of care. Valley Health Rehabilitation Services provides clinicians with opportunities for profession growth and development, as well as opportunities to learn from peers. Specifically, case studies are used within the systems as a useful problem-solving tool that enables clinicalRead MorePain Case Study1732 Words   |  7 Pagesliving. The benefits of this modality in occupational therapy (at a cognitive level) can help the client to improve self-image, increase confidence, decrease stress and anxiety, and improve quality of life. Use of CAM Modalities, and its Implications for OT Research and Practice The occupational therapy practitioner must use suitable practice models to guide clinical reasoning in treatment planning and evaluation. Electroacupuncture may be used by occupational therapists as a preparatory method toRead MoreThe Problem That Can Be The Most Challenging For Myself Essay727 Words   |  3 Pagesyou will do or say if you have the opportunity to see that person. But as a therapist, I would play the â€Å"opposites, † which is consisted doing my work while considering the profession’s standards of practice. Like any other profession, the occupational therapy profession is rooted, structured and organized around seven core concepts or values which are Altruism, Equality, Freedom, Justice, Dignity, Truth, and Prudence. These values or concepts replicate, guide the therapist’ interaction with clientsRead MoreEvidence Based Practice And The Occupational Therapy Association1449 Words   |  6 PagesEvidence-Based Practice Evidence based practice, EBP, is a phrase often heard by the occupational therapy, OT, student and is commonly used at the professional level as well. The term is frequently referenced by professors and textbooks, and can even be found in the American Occupational Therapy Association (2006) Centennial Vision Statement as a defining characteristic of the profession. With such an emphasis placed upon it, it is helpful to understand what is meant by the phrase evidence-basedRead MoreExploring Evidence Based Practice And Practice Essay1638 Words   |  7 PagesThis piece of work will be exploring the different forms of research and their significance in the evidence-based practice. What is research? Due to the evolving nature of occupational therapy, much of the work in this field is grounded in evidence-based practice. It is imperative, for those seeking a career in Occupational Therapy and those currently in the profession, to have a clear understanding of research methodology in order to work ethically and effectively when carrying out their research.

Empiricism Essay Example For Students

Empiricism Essay For a Genuine empiricist the phrase God Exists is meaninglessTo come to a proper understanding of the question, a few key concepts must first be established.What is meant by the term Empiricism? To an empiricist, the occurrence of consciousness is simply the product of experience.It is assumed that all human knowledge is acquired from experience and observation alone. It is believed that we are born with an empty slate; it is through sense perception that our knowledge begins to form and shape our mind. Empiricism is against the idea of spontaneous or a priori thought (knowledge that is independent of all particular experience). They believe in a posteriori knowledge, which is derives from experience alone. The belief opposing Empiricism is that of Rationalism. In this philosophy, reason is used to obtain knowledge. One can be born with innate ideas.What is meant by the term God?There is not one simple definition that can describe God. Different cultures have different conceptions of deity. One can be monotheistic, duo theistic, polytheistic or believe in the trinity. Others believe it merely a force or the world itself. For our purpose we will use a definition given from the Encarta world English Dictionary. GOD, Supreme Being: the being believed in monotheistic religions such as Judaism, Islam, and Christianity to be the all-powerful all-knowing creator of the universe, worshiped as the only God. The word exist must also be defined. For the statement God exists, we must understand what it is to exist. Existence is to have real being whether material or spiritual. IT is the state or fact of being, entity.Now that a proper explanation is given of the terms for the argument Why a genuine empiricist cannot believe in a supreme being, can take its form. God is considered to be an innate idea by many religious on goers.God cannot be completely comprehended. This is one of the greatest unknowns that faces mankind. If he cannot be perceived and no concept of him is p resent at birth then it would be extremely difficult to obtain knowledge of him. It is empiricism itself that criticizes the belief in miracles and visions. God cannot be perceived under normal circumstances. With a few exceptions he is inconceivable. For a true empiricist the existence of God does not coincide with their own teachings.Experience is everything to empiricists. The main criticism that empiricist hold against rationalist is the their belief of innate ideas. To assume that some thoughts could come directly from the mind rather than being acquired by experience is thought to be obscure.An innate idea is a belief or idea present at birth in the soul of an individual. With no actual experience. Ideas that are thought to be of an innate nature are those of substance, infinity, and God.There is no adequate empirical explanation for the origin of these ideas and they cannot be explained by observation or experience. If God is a priori (innate idea), then for an empiricist to believe in a Supreme Being it would be going against ones own teachings.David Hume (1711-1776), a radical Empiricist in his time, could give no rational explanation regarding these concepts. Nothing can ever be present to the mind but an image or perception.Hume held the belief in only a moral existence. He did not try to argue the existence of a God, although he did not try to prove Gods existence.If the idea of God is not present at birth, then where might it have been obtained? There are countries worldwide that believe in some form of Deity. For such a universal belief, there must be some origin or cause. The idea of this God must have been present at birth as a priori or must have in some way been experienced, a posteriori. Going back to one of the basic arguments brought forth by empiricism that is for one to believe, one must use observation to form knowledge.God is beyond the power of human conception. Let alone observation.How can one observe God? It is not possible to perc eive him.If it is impossible to experience a Supreme Being how than can one be thought to be true? For an empiricist, the conception of God is not innate and there is no way that he could be perceived.God cannot be traced back to sense data (something that is perceived by one of the senses and then deciphered by the mind).God is an unknowable force. God by definition has absolute greatness. The power that is held is exceptionally greater than any human being. If God exists, then his power would be infallible and infinite.We as humans do not hold the capacity to understand the concept of infinity. IF we are unable to assimilate this notion than we are unable to completely understand God.The idea of infinity is unanswerable according to Empiricists. There is no probable explanation. It was George Berkeleys (1685-1753) concept of God that was found to be quite contradictory to his work. His main claim was esse is percipi (or to be is to be perceived).The major predicament with this cla im is that he believed that one must me perceived to exist, and God by definition cannot be perceived. That would ultimately lead to the conclusion that according to his definition God does not exist.According to empiricists, the foundation of knowledge is not from reason but from observation. For an empiricist to believe in a superior being, this superior being would in some aspect, namely sense data, have to be experienced. IT is recognize by all that God cannot be perceived. God is a belief. For something to be a truly religious belief, it has to be just that. A belief, something that is not knowledge (SREN KIERKEGAARD 1813-1855).Religion is itself a belief. It is based upon faith. The statement God exists could as easily be wrong, as it is right. There is no method in which this could be proven to be false or truthful.The notion of god could never have been comprehended had it not been previously present. Mysticism is one valid explanation that an empiricist could use to give a valid claim on God. It is common to hear of occurrences where God has in some way been witnessed. There have been individuals that have claimed to have extraordinary personal experiences.Visions and miracles are both ways in which in some opinions God existence has been proved through the senses. Therefore making it an empirical experience.If an individual has had a direct encounter with a higher being then the empiricists belief in God would be validated. The possibility that there are other forms that an empiricist may experience God would also be applicable.Visions and miracles are phenomenons that can be experienced by an individual or by a group of people. They possess the capacity to alter previous dogmas that one may hold regarding the existence of a greater being.IT is difficult to trust visions, because they could be classified as hallucinations or a dream. There is no sound evidence that a vision has occurred. It is the seer that has actual proof. It is once again David Hu me who criticizes the belief in miracles. A miracle is a violation of the laws of nature. So, There must, therefore, be a uniform experience against every miraculous event. He also stated nothing is esteemed a miracle if it ever happened in the common course of nature. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) made a similar statement regarding the same issue. In the affairs of life, therefore, it is impossible for us to count on miracles or to take them into consideration at all in our use of reason (and reason must be used in every incident of life). It was by the opposition to natural law that miracles where denied. Experiencing God was made virtually impossible. IF miracles are not sound, and visions could be easily confused with hallucinations, there is no way that a knowledge of God can possible be obtained. Babbitt by Lewis Sinclair EssayBibliography:

Tinker Creek Summary Essay Example For Students

Tinker Creek Summary Essay Chapter One: ‘‘Heaven and Earth in Jest’’ The opening of Pilgrim at Tinker Creek is one of the most famous passages from the book. ‘‘I used to have a cat,’’ the book begins. The narrator reports that she was in the habit of sleeping naked in front of an open window, and the cat would use that window to return to the house at night after hunting. In the morning, the narrator would awaken to find her body ‘‘covered with paw prints in blood; I looked as though I’d been painted with roses. ’’ This opening passage introduces several important ideas and approaches that will operate through the entire book. We will write a custom essay on Tinker Creek Summary specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Dillard insistently presents the natural world as both beautiful and cruel, like the image of roses painted in blood. She demonstrates throughout the book that to discover nature, one must actively put oneself in its way. The narrator sleeps naked, with the windows open, to put no barriers between herself and the natural world. But the natural world is a manifestation of God, and it is God she is really seeking to understand through the book. Dillard introduces the theme of religion as the narrator washes the bloodstains off her body, wondering whether they are ‘‘the keys to the kingdom or the mark of Cain. ’ Finally, the anecdote structure itself is typical; throughout the book, Dillard weaves together passages of reflection, description, and narration. The book’s structure is loosely chronological, moving from January to December. ‘‘Heaven and Earth in Jest’’ is set in January, and several passages in present tense read like a nat uralist’s journal. But Dillard freely uses memories from other seasons and other years. ‘‘I am no scientist. I explore the neighborhood,’’ the narrator says, explaining both her method and her purpose. Chapter Two: ‘‘Seeing’’ The ten sections of chapter two all explore the question of what it means to really see. The narrator explains how she has trained herself to see insects in flight, hidden birds in trees, and other common occurrences in nature that most people miss because the events are too small or happen too quickly. She spends hours on a log watching for muskrats and brings home pond water to study under a microscope. In a long passage, she tells about patients who benefitted from the first cataract operations, and their difficulties in trying to see with their eyes after a lifetime of blindness. As the narrator contemplates different ways of seeing, she realizes, ‘‘I cannot cause light; the most I can do is try to put myself in the path of its beam. ’’ Chapter Three: ‘‘Winter’’ ‘‘Winter’’ begins on the first of February with the movements of large flocks of starlings that live in the area. Down by the creek, the narrator watches a coot and thinks about the frogs and turtles asleep under the mud. Her forays outside are shorter, and she spends evenings in front of the fireplace reading books about travel and about nature. Her only companions are a goldfish named Ellery Channing (after a friend of Henry David Thoreau) and the spiders that are allowed ‘‘the run of the house. ’’ Chapter Four: ‘‘The Fixed’’ In this chapter, the narrator discusses insects and stars. She has learned to recognize praying mantis egg cases in the wild, and she has brought one home and tied it to a branch near her window so she can observe the hatching. In the cold of February, she thinks about June and the steadiness of insects and the seeming fixedness of the stars. Chapter Five: ‘‘Untying the Knot’’ .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed , .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed .postImageUrl , .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed , .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed:hover , .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed:visited , .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed:active { border:0!important; } .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed:active , .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc58fe871781a9b8ca25f03c0bd2dd7ed:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: †Lord of the Flies† by William Golding Commentary Sample EssayThis short chapter takes its title from a snake skin the narrator finds in the woods. The skin appears to be tied in a knot, continuous, as the seasons are ‘‘continuous loops. ’’ The narrator contemplates the changing of the seasons and hopes to be alert and notice the exact moment when winter becomes spring. Chapter Six: ‘‘The Present’’ It is March. Surprisingly, as the chapter opens, the narrator is at a gas station on an interstate highway, talking with the station attendant. But it is not the conversation that is important; rather, the narrator focuses on a beagle puppy, whose fur she rubs as she sips her coffee. For a moment, she feels entirely alive: ‘‘This is it, I think, this is it, right now, the present, this empty gas station here, this western wind, this tang of coffee on the tongue, and I am patting the puppy, I am watching the mountain. ’’ The narrator reflects on human consciousness and self-consciousness, which act against being in the present and against being in the presence of God. She affirms her intention to push away connections with cities, with people. The flowing creek is new every second, and it is in the creek that grace can be found. Chapter Seven: ‘‘Spring’’ Spring unfolds through April and May, and the narrator has missed spring’s beginning. Plants are greening and flowering, and hibernating animals are reappearing. The narrator feels an urgency to examine every creature quickly before summer comes and they begin to decay and devour each other. Chapter Eight: ‘‘Intricacy’’ This chapter contains more meditation than anecdote. In June, the narrator ponders the smallest things—red blood cells in a goldfish’s tail, blooming plankton, the horsehair worm, molecules, and atoms. In the intricacy of the universe, she finds confirmation of God’s presence and plan: ‘‘Beauty itself is the fruit of the creator’s exuberance that grew such a tangle. ’’ Chapter Nine: ‘‘Flood’’ Like many of Dillard’s chapter titles, ‘‘The Flood’’ is meant to be taken both literally and figuratively. This chapter, which opens with the first day of summer, describes an actual flooding of Tinker Creek and its effects on the landscape, the animals, and the narrator’s human neighbors. It is among the most consistently narrative chapters of the book. The rising water brings with it a flood of emotions and thoughts, leaving the narrator feeling ‘‘dizzy, drawn, mauled. ’’ Chapter Ten: ‘‘Fecundity’’ Fecundity means ‘‘fruitfulness,’’ and this chapter explores plants and animals, including fish, poppies, field mice, and bamboo, that grow quickly or produce large numbers of offspring. Of course, these creatures are so prolific because they must be: of a million fish eggs laid, only a few will survive to hatch. ‘‘What kind of a world is this, anyway,’’ the narrator asks. ‘‘Are we dealing in life, or in death? ’’ Chapter Eleven: ‘‘Stalking’’ As summer progresses, the narrator practices her skills at stalking animals, especially animals that do not wish to be seen, including fish, herons, and muskrats. As she watches fish, she thinks about fish as an ancient symbol for Christ and for the spirit. In a long passage, she describes how she has spent years learning to stalk muskrats. But stalking animals is not the end in itself: ‘‘You have to stalk the spirit, too. ’’ Chapter Twelve: ‘‘Nightwatch’’ In late summer, the narrator watches grasshoppers and locusts. She takes a sleeping bag and a sandwich to spend a night outside. As she watches the sunset and listens to the night sounds, she thinks, ‘‘this is my city, my culture, and all the world I need. ’’ Chapter Thirteen: ‘‘The Horns of the Altar’’ At mid-September, the narrator ponders poisons, parasites, and pests. In the natural world, creatures eat one another or die of other causes. The chapter title refers to altars used for sacrifices in the Old Testament of the Judeo-Christian Bible. Animals to be sacrificed would be tied to ‘‘horns,’’ or rising side pieces, so that they would be suspended above burning coals. .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470 , .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470 .postImageUrl , .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470 , .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470:hover , .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470:visited , .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470:active { border:0!important; } .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470:active , .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470 .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc2ff7b4d642ca1bf87cda71085836470:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Why We Should Keep The Electoral College EssayThe narrator is aware of herself as a potential sacrifice, as eventual food for maggots and parasites. ‘‘I am aging and eaten and have done my share of eating too. ’’ Chapter Fourteen: ‘‘Northing’’ As October and November pass, the narrator thinks about heading north, facing directly into the coming winter. Watching butterflies and geese migrating south, she wishes to go north, to find a place where the wind and the view will be unimpeded, where she can find an austere simplicity. She believes that stillness will open her up to the presence of God. Chapter Fifteen: ‘â₠¬ËœThe Waters of Separation’’ At the winter solstice, the weather is unusually warm. The narrator wanders through the brown landscape following a bee and reflecting on the year that has passed. The chapter title refers to ceremonial water used in the Old Testament for purifying the unclean. For Dillard, Tinker Creek flows with ‘‘the waters of beauty and mystery’’ and also with the waters of separation. In contemplating the natural world, she approaches God but separates herself from other people and from the things of this world. She drinks of this water willingly and with thanks.

The Hitchickers Guide3 essays

The Hitchickers Guide3 essays The Hitchhikers guide to the galaxy is a wholly remarkable book. Thought many of the concepts are slightly abstract and obscure, the book itself is a truly great work. The basic idea is that the day we meet our adventurous crew is the single worst Thursday of Arthur Dents life. Sadly, it is not just Arthur who will be having a bad day. You see, it is this Thursday when the earth gets destroyed. Of all the billions of people on the planet, there was only one who knew what was to take place, and he himself was not even from earth. Ford Prefect, best friend of Arthur is a smooth talking quick thinking person for the remote planet of Betelgeuse five. As you were probably able to infer, Ford Prefect was not the name given to him by his parents, but instead the name of a car that was never popular, which he chose as his moniker, as to better fit in with the humans of earth. Our story begins with Arthur waking up early at his London flat (it was a British book). This was just like any other Thursday, except that outside, a demolition crew was beginning to destroy his house so that they will be able to create a highway bypass. This was news to Arthur. He did not know how they could do this without even warning him first. Upon questioning the foreman of the job, he was informed that the plans had been on record in the planning office for months. Sadly, the plans had been kept in the cellar where there is no nights, or stairs for that matter, in a disused lavatory, in the bottom of a locked file cabinet, with a sign that says Beware of the leopard. Arthurs decision at this point was to lie in front of the bulldozer, so that, without killing him, it would be impossible to destroy the house. Just at this point, Ford Prefect enters the scene. He tells Arthur that it is imperative that he goes to the bar with him, because after he tells him the news, he will need a stiff drink. Arthur explains the si...

Malcolm X's realization of self identity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Malcolm X's realization of self identity - Essay Example I understand Malcolm considered him as a black person right from his childhood. His imposing struggle to become a spokesman was always discouraged by the societal benefit enjoyed by the white community. You know, it is an example of the present day’s America. As you know well, when diplomacy fails, there is war; that is what happened to this man. Continuous rehearsal of humiliating events took him to the verge of reacting violently. And you know, as a result of this incident, he turned a rebel and started exhibiting a deviant behavior against anything he disliked. As an argument line I believe that his life resembled a Russian roulette game. Expectation of a good turn out from any endeavor is the right of every individual. He evaluated the priorities of the society and found that he must be white or of a fighting nature to stand against the inequalities in the society. I mean, Malcolm was transforming himself to be a governor of the consolidated feelings of the depressed black minds. I would like to give emphasize to the fact that Malcolm strongly opposed the white’s control of education and occupation. With his struggles for upholding the prestige and rights of the black, he took chances of risking his life. He never feared the impact of failure; success or failure seemed same to him. His objective of the fight was as solid as his thoughts. I think, he encouraged the indigenous equality claims of the black, because, the topography of American soil had become a stage for the white actors to demonstrate the cruel ways of discriminating the black. Let me consider Malcolm’s life in the prison for that longer term as a reformative time for him. He confronted questions about his color of his kin and hair. A white in the jail was a jinx across his life path. He had to apply himself, to the toxic conditions that people created with the uncontrolled use of chemicals to dye hair. Looking like a white was much more essential to survive on the

Housing and homelessness Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Housing and homelessness - Coursework Example In the present day context, homelessness along with housing need is considered to be a social issue, which hampers the economic growth and stability of a country at large. The members of social care services provide affordable housing to people to secure their life and reduce health issues that lead towards the development of a healthy society (Department of Housing and Public Works, 2014). In relation to the above context, the essay intends to determine whether addressing and alleviating housing need is a part of social care policy and practice with focus on evaluating evidences and providing valid justifications. With the advent of globalisation, the lifestyle of people and economies of scale have changed by a considerable extent. The issue of homelessness and housing need is identified to s increase considerably that have been affecting the lives of the individuals and rising social issues. It will be vital to mention that in this present day context, the issue concerning homelessness must have ‘no place in the society’. Justifiably, homelessness is duly considered to be one of the social issues, which affects human civilisation and economy at large. It is observed in several countries that people live in the streets as they have no place for taking shelter. With reference to the census of 2011 in Queensland, UK, it was witnessed that about 19858 people lived in the streets as they were homeless (Department of Housing and Public Works, 2014). The issue concerning homelessness resembles the fact that the people are unable to afford a house for themselves, which is mainly because of increasing unemployment. This in turn elevates the poverty level, which is recognised as a social issue and thus utmost attention is provided to eradicate the same. Therefore, in this context, it can be inferred that assisting people in terms of offering them with street based help or

Overseas Students Participate in Cultural Activities Essay Example for Free

Overseas Students Participate in Cultural Activities Essay Cultural activities are activities where people spend their leisure time attending cultural venues and events. For example, cultural activities include going to art galleries, museums, libraries, operas, concerts and the cinema. People want to get feelings of well-being and gain more knowledge by participating in cultural activities. Participation in cultural activities influences the development of students in many aspects, such as for entertainment and knowledge. The involvement of students in cultural activities can help them develop a well-rounded education. For overseas students in Australia, participating in native cultural activities can also help them reduce culture shock and provide a better way for students to understand more information concerning the history, customs and beliefs in Australia. In a survey concerned with participation in cultural activities among Australian people, it was found that about 85% of the Australian people who aged over 15 years old participated in at least one of cultural activity during the 12 months in 2005-06 (Australian Bureau of Statistics) (ABS) (2007). Going to the cinema was the most popular activity which had the highest percentages at 65% of people. Going to zoological parks and aquariums were the two second most common activities, at 36%; libraries and botanic gardens were at 34% (ABS, 2007). In addition, the same study found that people with higher educational background had considerably higher attendance rates than people with lower educational attainment at art galleries, museums, zoological parks and aquariums, libraries, popular music concerts, other performing arts and the cinema. Moreover, in previous research, it was found that about 25% of respondents went to the library over 20 times during the year. (ABS, 2007). However, little research has been done to compare differences in participation in cultural activities between overseas students in Australia and Australian people. The aim of this research is to find out whether overseas students’ cultural activity behaviors were similar to Australians. Methodology This research was carried out in Navitas English language school on 10th December 2010, and was concerned about the participation in cultural activities of overseas students. Data were collected through questionnaires in the school. The participants consisted of 50 overseas students (25 males and 25 females), who were aged between 18-24 and 25-34, just one person was over 35. The majority of the sample were Chinese; other subjects were from Thailand, Vietnam, Korea, Indonesia, and Japan. The questionnaire, which was administered informally and contained 8 questions, was made up of three sections: demographic information, the type and the frequency of cultural activities. Specifically, 4 questions were developed to record general information; one question was about which cultural activities students participated in; the other 3 items asked about how often students participated in cultural activities per year, involving all cultural activities, going to the library and cinema. The survey was conducted by several groups; each group consisted of 2-3 students. These groups respectively entered different classes to collect data using questionnaires. After collecting this, the data was shared by all groups. Data from questionnaires were then collated and converted to percentages. The results were compared according to gender, education and frequency in graphs.

Types of Learning Disabilities Essay -- essays papers

Types of Learning Disabilities There are many types of learning disabilities that can hinder a child’s scholastic performance. These include: dyscalculia; dysgraphia; dysphasia; auditory, memory, and processing disability; and dyslexia. Dyslexia is when a person has difficulty translating language to thought or thought to language. This person would have problems with expressive and/or receptive oral and written language; you would see trouble with reading, spelling, writing, speaking, listening, and mathematics. If someone was trouble with arithmetic or solving problems, you might suspect they have dyscalculia. A person with this disability has much difficulty solving basic math problems. A writing disorder called dysgraphia causes a person to have difficulty forming letters or writing in a defined space. Most of the time their handwriting is illegible. Dyspraxia interferes with a person’s ability to make controlled and/or coordinated physical reaction to a situation; their reactions may be inappropriate to the situation. Auditory, memory, and processing disabilities cause problems with a person’s ability to remember words or sounds. He or she may experience retrieval failure when trying to remember simple words or sounds; this may be because his or her brain failed to understand the language correctly (Brickley). Even though these disabilities hinder a person’s ability to learn at the same speed as his or her peers, a teacher can accommodate the needs of a person with LD. A person with LD is not stupid, he or she just learns differently. Teaching Strategies Most students diagnosed with a learning disability have an Individualized Education Program (IEP). An IEP is a document that had ... ...rent Observation.† Learning Disabilities Online. 7 May 2004 . Male, Mary (2003). Technology for Inclusion: Meeting the Special Needs of All Students. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities (1993). â€Å"General Information About Learning Disabilities.† NICHCY. New Rochelle, N.Y. City School District. Learning Disability: A Book of Resources for the Classroom Teacher. New Rochelle: The Schools. Thurlow, Martha, and James Ysseldyke (2002). Including Students with Disabilities in Assessments. Washington, D.C.: National Educations Association. Wood, Judy W (2002). Adapting Instruction to Accommodate Students in Inclusive Settings. Upper Saddle River: Merrill.

Government to Limit Use of Cars Essay

Government agencies have been told to stop using official vehicles one day a week based on their license plate numbers, according to a notification for an energy-saving and emission reduction program to be implemented across the country.†¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¨The program, part of government efforts to protect the environment and promote sustainable development during the 12th Five-Year Plan (2011-15), was published on the central government’s official website Tuesday.†¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¨According to the program, the measures were specially designed for various fields, such as enterprises and schools.†¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¨Some Web users applauded the government’s efforts, while others questioned the feasibility of limiting the use of government vehicles. Lian Peng, a freelance writer, wrote on his Sina Weibo microblog that it was difficult to distinguish private cars from official ones, and the ban would result either in drivers using two license plates, or the government buying more vehicles. †¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¨A pilot project for government agencies to use bicycles will be launched. Government workers’ autos were also encouraged to be parked one day a week based on plate numbers.†¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¨Niu Fengrui, director of the Institute for Urban and Environmental Studies at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, praised the positive efforts made by the government to reduce emissions. However, such efforts would not have apparent effect, Niu told the Global Times Tuesday.†¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¨Niu suggested that the root of the problem was energy supply, and the fundamental approach should be to develop technologies and adopt better equipment to improve efficiency, as well as change lifestyles and production methods.†¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¨Zhu Lijia, director of the public research department of the Chinese Academy of Governance, told the Global Times such measures will not actually promote the reform of the official vehicle system, and would not impact the core of the system. Military told to cut emissions The government’s efforts to save energy and reduce harmful emissions have spread to a new front: the country’s military.   The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) and armed police should work to build energy-efficient barracks and develop energy-saving models for logistics, consumption and training, said a nationwide emission-reduction plan. â€Å"Efforts to save resources in the military are an important part of the country’s energy-saving and emission-reduction efforts,† the plan said. It lays out that the PLA will scale down administrative expenses, make greater efforts to conserve fuel, procure environmentally friendly products and recycle military uniforms. PLA garrisons will coordinate their use of civilian vehicles with local governments to enhance transportation efficiency. Xinhua Introduction It is possible that no invention has had as profound an effect on society as the passenger automobile. It did not take long after its introduction in the early part of this century for the auto to quickly become the primary means of transportation in the United States, where there are now 752 motor vehicles for every 1,000 people (World Almanac 211). While no other country can match the excessive automobile use of the U.S, it’s not for lack of trying. Even in China, where the use of bicycles by its citizens is legendary, the number of cars has been doubling every five years for the past 30 years (World Resources Institute, hereafter â€Å"WRI† 172). But reliance on cars is not without its problems&emdash;the most obvious being air pollution and energy consumption. Pollution: General Pollution by cars causes lung cancer, respiratory problems, urban smog, and acid rain (Brown 25). By 1970, after decades without government regulation, air quality had become a serious problem. The first federal Clean Air Act was passed during the Nixon Administration to curtail the ever-increasing amount of pollution caused by automobiles and industry, and Congress passed an updated version in 1990 (WRI 182). However, the Clean Air Act didn’t prohibit pollution; it simply defined an â€Å"acceptable† amount. Further, the legislation addressed only certain airborne contaminants, while ignoring others. Perhaps most significantly, although bad air was outlawed, it still exists. More than half of the people in the U.S. live in areas that failed to meet federal air quality standards at least several days a year (30 Simple Energy Things You Can Do to Save the Earth, hereafter â€Å"30 Simple Things,† 11), and around 80 million Americans live in areas that continually fail to meet these standards (WRI 63). Despite the Clean Air Acts, the reality is that air pollution continues to be a major public health problem. As bad as the air is in the U.S., in other countries which have waited too long to address the pollution caused by cars, it’s worse. Mexico City, Sà £o Paulo, New Delhi, and Bangkok are grappling with serious air problems. And much of that pollution is caused by private automobiles (Brown 25). Pollution: Ground-Level Ozone One way cars create pollution is by contributing to the amount of ground-level ozone (not to be confused with the atmospheric ozone layer). In the atmosphere, the ozone layer shields the planet from harmful ultraviolet radiation rays. But on the ground, ozone is another matter, causing hazy smog and respiratory problems. Most ozone pollution is caused by motor vehicles, which account for 72% of nitrogen oxides and 52% of reactive hydrocarbons (principal components of smog) (30 Simple Things 11). The seriousness of ground-level ozone should not be underestimated. According to the World Resources Institute: Ozone pollution has become widespread in cities in Europe, North America, and Japan as auto and industrial emissions have increased. †¦ Breathing ozone concentrations of 0.012 ppm&emdash;levels typical in many cities&emdash;can irritate the respiratory tract and impair lung function, causing coughing, shortness of breath, and chest pain †¦ Evidence also suggests ozone expo sure lowers the body’s defenses, increasing susceptibility to respiratory infections (65). Pollution: Lead Cars also pollute by emitting lead from leaded gasoline. Although the use of lead in gasoline is banned in the United States, leaded gasoline is common in other countries. In fact, of the countries for which data is available, 43% use nothing but leaded gasoline. Many of the rest use at least some leaded gasoline in their energy mix. This is a definite cause for concern: One of the oldest metals used by humans, lead is a cumulative neurotoxin that impairs brain development among children and has been connected to elevated blood pressure and resulting hypertension, heart attacks, and premature death in adults. Emissions from vehicles is the largest source of lead exposure in many urban areas (WRI 266-267). The effects of all this pollution on human health are unsettling. A study of U.S. cities found that mortality rates were 17-26% higher in cities with the dirtiest air compared to those with the cleanest air. Not surprisingly, the study also found correlations between bad air and lung cancer and cardiopulmonary disease. The risks translate roughly to a two-year shorter life span for residents of dirty-air cities. On a global basis, estimates of mortality due to outdoor air pollution range from about 0.4-1.1% of total annual deaths (WRI 63-64). In the U.S., 30,000 people die every year from automobile emissions (â€Å"Bicycling and Our Environment† 1). [Also see our separate page on lead.] Pollution: Global Warming Perhaps even scarier than the direct damage to our bodies from auto pollution is the fact that car emissions are contributing to an overall warming of the entire planet, which could destroy the world’s food chain. Cars emit carbon dioxide (CO2), a heat-trapping gas. In fact, they emit a lot of it: 20 pounds per gallon of gas burned (NRDC 12, Zuckermann 29). Atmospheric concentrations of CO2 have increased by 30% since preindustrial times, and much of that increase is directly related to the burning of fossil fuels. According to the Worldwatch Institute: â€Å"CO2 levels are now at their highest point in 160,000 years, and global temperatures at their highest since the Middle Ages† (Brown 26). The effects of this global warming are frightening: rising sea levels, dying coral reefs, spreading of infectious diseases, and extreme weather conditions, including droughts, rare forest fires, historic floods, and severe storms. Even more frightening, these events are not just pr edictions&emdash;they’re happening right now (Brown 26). Energy Use The amount of energy used by automobiles is staggering. Transportation of all types accounts for more than 25% of the world’s commercial energy use, and motor vehicles account for nearly 80% of that (WRI 171). In numerical terms, the figures are hard to comprehend. The world used over a trillion liters of motor gas in 1995. And the U.S. accounted for 46% of that total (WRI 266-267). In fact, America’s gasoline consumption easily outstrips its production. The U.S. currently imports over half its oil (52%) even more than it did before the oil crises of 1973 and 1979. This dependence on foreign oil has significant economic consequences, and many observers feel that protecting â€Å"our† right to oil was the real reason for the U.S./Iraq war of 1991. Americans use large amounts of gasoline not just because they drive so much, but also because they’re extremely wasteful about how they drive. The NRDC notes: â€Å"Most cars on the road carry only one person. In fact, we have so much extra room in our 140 million cars that everyone in Western Europe could fit in them with us.† If every commuter car in the U.S. carried just one more person, we’d save eight billion gallons of gas a year. The one-person-per-car scenario also greatly contributes to traffic congestion, which in turn wastes even more energy&emdash;about three billion gallons of gas a year (30 Simple Things 52-53). But changing Americans’ habits doesn’t seem likely any time soon, as the failure of â€Å"High-Occupancy Vehicle† (HOV) lanes makes clear. To encourage commuters to carpool, some communities have designated one lane of traffic on certain roadways as HOV lanes. Commuters can drive in this lane only if there are at least two people in the vehicle. The reasoning is that commuters will want to carpool so they can ride in the uncongested HOV lane rather than being stuck in traffic in the normal lane when riding by themselves. But as Michael Bluejay points out, these lanes don’t always succeed in encouraging carpooling. A friend and I recently had occasion to drive through Dallas during rush hour, and I had my first opportunity to see how an HOV lane worked. Basically, it didn’t. We passed hundreds and hundreds of single-occupant cars in the regular traffic lanes as we zoomed by in the practically-empty HOV lane. It struck me as really crazy: Whenever I try to encourage people to ride bikes more and drive less, they always whine to me about how ‘convenient’ it is to drive. Well, exactly how ‘convenient’ is it to sit in your car at a complete standstill, adding 30-60 minutes to your morning commute? That’s convenience?! The experience demonstrated to me how far people were willing to go to avoid carpooling. They were willing to sit there like morons, stuck hopelessly in traffic, for the ‘luxury’ of being the only person in their vehicle. Although I was disappointed that the HOV lanes didn’t seem to work, I was at least pleased to realize that all those greedy motorists were being punished with even more traffic congestion, since the HOV lane meant that there was one fewer lane to move all those cars. Summary Automobiles are responsible for a tremendous amount of air pollution and wasted energy. These problems impact people all over the world, both motorists and non-motorists alike, by affecting their health, their economies, and their communities. Legislation to address air pollution has been only partially successful, and air quality continues to be a major concern in countries all over the world. As for energy use, one can only hope that world leaders find a better way to address this problem than fighting wars over an increasingly shrinking supply of oil. More stats are available in our Car Almanac. Works Cited â€Å"Bicycling and Our Environment.† Austin Cycling News. Aug. 1998: 1. Bluejay, Michael. â€Å"HOV Lanes.† Bicycling in Austin. Feb. 1998. 22 June 1999. http://BicycleAustin.info Brown, Lester R., et al. State of the World: A Worldwatch Institue Report on Progress Towards a Sustainable Future. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1999. 30 Simple Energy Things You Can Do to Save the Earth. Los Angeles: South California Edison, 1990. World Almanac and Book of Facts. 1996 Mahwah, NJ: World Almanac Books, 1995. World Resources Institute. 1998-99 World Resources: A Guide to the Global Environment. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Zuckermann, Wolgang. End of the Road. Cambridge: Lutterworth Press, 1991. Car Pollution Statistics Driving cars effects more than air quality. Car pollution statistics point to ground pollution, resource reduction (mining and petroleum products), and health issues as other problems derived from out motorized society. Air quality is an important reason to pay attention to car pollution, but there are other reasons too.| Car pollution is considered by most people to be a decreasing problem, but it’s actually increasing, due to the large number of cars that are driven each day. Measures are being taken to reduce air pollution, including the manufacture of hybrid cars, the creation of new environmentally friendly fuels, and more, but those measures don’t touch all of the car pollution issues. Learning about car pollution statistics can open your eyes to the myriad problems. If you realize the importance of making changes in your life and car driving habits, then you can make changes to help decrease the amount of car pollution that you release into the air. * FTIR Gas AnalyzerGas purity and emissions monitoring by MKS Instruments On-Line Analyzer†¨www.ccrprocessproducts.com/FTIR†¨ * Car pollution statistics can give you the knowledge that you need to compel you to make changes in your life to lessen your impact upon the environment. Here are a few car pollution statistics that you need to be learn about and be aware of: * SUV’s release up to forty-seven percent more car pollution than the average-sized car. * The amount of car pollution that is released from cars is much more than the amount of pollution released by a nuclear power plant. * Ozone pollution is primarily due to the pollution that is released by cars. Seventy-two percent of nitrogen oxides and fifty-two percent of hydrocarbons, which is a component of smog, are released by cars. * The Journal of Epidemiology and Public Health published a study that suggested that most childhood cancers are caused by air pollution, which can be caused by cars and more. * There are 752 cars for every 1,000 people in the United States. * In China, the number of cars that are driven has doubled every five years for the past thirty years. * Thirty-thousand people in the United States each year die from conditions that are caused or exacerbated by car pollution. * Half of the people in the United States live in areas that fail to meet federal air quality standards at least several days a year. * Eighty million people live in areas that are continually not living up to these standards. * SUV’s release 28-gallons of carbon dioxide into the air for every gallon of gasoline that is used. * Car pollution has numerous effects, both physically and environmentally, like acid rain, smog, lung cancer, and respiratory problems. As you can see from the above car pollution statistics, cars have a huge impact upon the health of the citizens, the air, and the environment. That is why it is so important that we find ways to make changes in our lives to help decrease the amount of pollution that we release by driving our car. By using alternative fuels, considering hybrid cars, driving less, and more, you can help make your impact upon the world a little less harsh. Consider these car pollution statistics the next time that you get into your car. You may find that your trip is not as important as you think. Energy Consumption and the Environment Impacts and Options for Personal Transportation (Revised 2-4-96) In 1973, petroleum shortages caused by the OPEC oil embargo launched the world’s industrialized nations on a search for more efficient homes, factories, and transportation systems. After two decades of attempts to economize, energy use in the residential sector is about the same, industrial energy use is down, and transportation energy use is up. Today, we are more concerned with the other side of the coin – the environmental problems and long-term economic perils of unbridled energy consumption.Trends in Transportation Energy Consumption:Transportation now consumes more than 20% of the world’s total primary energy and produces much of the world’s air pollution. In just 30 years, the number of cars in the world will soar from today’s 400 million or so, to more than one billion. Private transportation will then need 2-1/2 times more energy and produce 2-1/2 times more air pollution. If global trends are projected to year 2100, the world will need 10 times more total energy, and transportation will consume 40% of this much larger pool.(1)Energy Use, Global Warming, and Climatic Changes:Energy use and emissions trends point to significant economic, political, and social problems for future generations. The greenhouse effect alone could have devastating effects on economies. Without intervention, the buildup of greenhouse gases could reach twice the pre-industrial level as early as 2030. The resulting global warming effect could raise sea levels enough to threaten wetlands, increase coastal flooding, and accelerate coastal erosion. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimated that sea levels will rise an average of 6 to 20 inches by 2050. In addition, many unmanaged ecosystems will probably be lost. Changes in rainfall patterns will likely result in more severe droughts, more intense tropical storms, and ultimately, dislocations and reductions in agricultural output. (Despite the increased crop yield associated with higher carbon dioxide levels, the resulting climatic changes are expected to shift agricultural production to regions having less productive topsoil, which would then result in diminished total yields.)About 75% of human emissions of carbon dioxide, the most important man-made greenhouse gas, is caused by the use of fossil fuels. Fossil fuel use has caused an imbalance in the earth’s normal carbon cycle. Normally, biologic growth absorbs carbon from the environment and then releases it back into the environment when it decays or is burned. New growth then absorbs the carbon again, and the amount of carbon in the environment remains roughly the same. Since the last ice age, the level of carbon in the atmosphere (in the form of carbon dioxide) has varied only about 5%. However, fossil fuel use has upset the balance.Over the earth’s history, large amounts of carbon had been removed from the environment and become locked away beneath the surface where it was ultimately transformed into fossil fuel deposits. Since the industrial revolution, humankind has been removing these deposits, burning the fuel, and releasing the carbon into the atmosphere. The result is a rapid buildup of atmospheric carbon dioxide that is unprecedented in the history of human life on earth. No one knows the precise effects, b ut for better or for worse, average temperatures will increase and global weather patterns will change. Limited Supplies of Traditional and Inexpensive Energy:Nearly 40% of the world’s energy now comes from petroleum, and another 21% comes from natural gas.(2) Together, these finite natural resources supply about 60% of the world’s energy. If oil and natural gas consumption continued to double every 15 to 20 years as it had for the 100 years preceding 1973, the earth’s entire original endowment of these resources would be 80% depleted in another 30 years or so. As early as 1970, new oil and gas discoveries had dramatically declined and have remained low. In the ’80s, experts estimated that U.S. reserves would last about 35 years at existing pumping rates. More recently, estimates have been revised downward. Considering known reserves and estimated undiscovered deposits, U.S. oil will be depleted in about 10-12 years at present pumping rates. And new finds will make little difference on a worldwide scale. A new Prudhoe Bay discovery would provide the world with about six months’ oil supply, and a new North Sea find would equate to about three years’ supply.(3)Each year, the demand for oil is increasing by an amount equal to Kuwait’s entire annual production, and for the first time, OPEC has no substantial excess production capacity. Because of declining and more costly-to-recover petroleum reserves, prices are expected to begin rising in the mid to late ’90s, and continue to rise thereafter.(4)Alternative Fuels:The challenge of alternative fuels is primarily an economic one. Although the volumetric cost of methanol (made from natural gas) and ethanol (made from corn) is on par with gasoline, a car running on ethanol consumes 50 percent more fuel and an ethanol car consumes about twice the fuel per mile traveled, in comparison to a car running on gasoline. Consequently, per-mile fuel costs are greater. Natural gas is less costly on a per-mile basis than toda y’s gasoline, but supplies are finite and the high cost of natural gas vehicle systems generally offset the lower cost of the fuel itself. Although environmentally friendly, hydrogen is both technically and economically challenging due to its high production costs and the difficulty of storing hydrogen on-board vehicles. Alternative fuels do not save primary energy, but they are cleaner than gasoline. Carbon dioxide levels remain essentially unchanged when alcohol fuels are made from renewable biological feedstocks.Renewable Fuels:Renewable biomass fuels, such as ethanol and methanol, may become economically competitive with petroleum motor fuels by year 2000. But much remains uncertain about the world’s capacity to produce biomass in quantities sufficient to meet future energy needs. Already, about half the world’s solar energy captured by photosynthesis is used by humans, primarily for food and forest products. Total primary energy use in the U.S. amounts to about 31 times more energy than is harvested as crops and forest products, and about 40% more energy than is captured by all forms of U.S. vegetation, combined. Considering all agricultural crops, forests, lawns, gardens and wild vegetation, the energy contained in annual U.S. vegetation growth totals about 54 quads (quadrillion BTUs), and in year 1990 total U.S. primary energy consumption amounted to approximately 81 quads.Because of limitations in water supplies, nutrients, and arable lands, the amount of energy obtainable from the world’s agricultural resources is limited. Even in the U.S., which has more arable land per capita than any other nation on earth, it may be infeasible to produce biomass fuels in quantities sufficient for the nation’s energy needs. According to Dr. David Pimentel, Cornell University, the U.S. has the agricultural capacity to support a population of about 200 million on biomass energy – only if per capita energy consumption were reduced to half its present level. Worldwide, the ability of the ecosystem to sustain a population at an equivalent of U.S. consumption in the ’90’s is probably limited to about two billion people, or one-third of the existing population.(5) Unfortunately, U.S. population is expected to reach 500 million in 60 years, and worldwide population will reach 12-15 billion near the end of the 21st century. Economic Implications:The world is entering a period of escalating consumption, declining reserves of traditional energy feedstocks, higher energy costs, and increasing environmental stress, which could have vast economic, political, and social ramifications. As environmental limitations are approached, ecosystems become more unstable. In the future, ecosystem management and environmental maintenance will become more the responsibility of humans rather than nature. The economic impact of higher energy costs will be compounded as the cost of environmental protection and repair is included in the fundamentally higher cost of energy. As a result, varying degrees of negative economic effects are likely.Ultimately, a fundamental restructuring of the way in which energy is produced and consumed, as well as its value and role in the economy, must occur, regardless of the particular energy technology. Reducing the energy intensity of industrialized societies is the most environmentally sound and least economically harmful strategy. Energy use must be constrained if the interrelated problems of energy supplies, environmental degradation, and economic well-being are to be solved.Transportation’s Role:Transportation is essential to modern economies, and that sector is almost totally dependent on oil as a source of energy. The ability to freely and inexpensively move goods and people is a fundamental link in the economic chain. Today, large changes in the price or supply of oil send shock waves rolling through the world’s financial institutions. Transportation is the most rapidly growing consumer of the world’s energy, and the largest share of transportation’s energy goes to passenger travel. In developed countries, passenger travel accounts for about 70% of the total energy consumed by transportation.The Automobile’s Impact on Transportation Energy Consumption:The automobile is responsible for nearly 90% of the energy consumed for travel in the U.S., about 80% in Western Europe, and nearly 60% in Japan.(6) Today, there are approximately 400 million cars in the world, and sometime around year 2030 the world’s automobile population will surpass one billion. If driving habits remain unchanged, cars will have to become nearly three times more energy-efficient by 2030 just to maintain that sector’s present consumption. If energy use trends are projected to year 2100, transportation would then have to be twenty times more energy-efficient, which roughly equates to 400 mpg cars (automobile fleet-average fuel economy is now about 20 mpg).Cars in the U.S. have become more energy-efficient over the past two decades, but other developed countries are losing ground and actually consuming more fuel per passenger mile traveled.(7) Europeans are turning more to private cars, and as a result transportation trends and energy use patterns are converging with those of the U.S. But the greatest increase in transportation energy consumption will occur in the developing world. By year 2010, India is expected to have 36 times more cars than in 1990. China will have 91 times more cars, Mexico will have 2-1/2 times more cars, and Eastern Europe and the countries of the former U.S.S.R. will probably double their automobile population. The rest of the developing world will experience a 300% increase over the same period. In comparison, the number of cars in the U.S., Canada, Western Europe, and Japan will have grown by only 12%-15%.(8)The Automobile’s Role in Atmospheric Pollution:In a typical U.S. city, motor vehicle emissions account for 30%-50% of hydrocarbon, 80%-90% of carbon monoxide, and 40%-60% of nitrogen oxide emissions. Cars and light trucks are responsible for about 20% of the nation’s carbon dioxide, which is a powerful greenhouse gas. Motor vehicle carbon emissions are essentially proportional to total fuel consumed.(9) Unfortunately, in the coming decades the greatest growth in the automobile population will occur in developing countries which can least afford clean technologies. The United Nations Fund for Population Activities estimates that, because of rapidly increasing automobile populations, developing countries will be emitting 16.6 billion tons of carbon dioxide annually by year 2025, or about four times as much as developed nations. Problems Are Interdependent:Transportation energy consumption and environmental health are interrelated issues. Relieving the demand side of the equation simultaneously relieves the rest. If vehicle fuel economy were doubled, for example, transportation emissions would be essentially cut in half, even if there were no improvement in emission control technologies. If petroleum consumption were cut in half, reserves would be effectively doubled, even though no new deposits had been discovered. With a doubling of vehicle fuel economy, the same number of vehicle miles could be supported on half the investment in exploratory drilling, half the recovery, refining, and delivery expenses, and half the damage to the environment. The same interrelationships would exist with alternative energy sources, regardless of the particular technology.Although each problem, from emissions and resource burdens to economic factors, may yield to their own targeted efforts, alleviating the fundamental proble m simultaneously reduces the entire spectrum of associated difficulties. The Automobile as a Transportation System:Mass transit is often mentioned as an alternative to private cars, but the most effective mass transit system in the world is the automobile. An automobile transportation system provides schedules and routes that are tailored to individual needs. In addition, users individually purchase, maintain, and fuel the transportation device, and only the relatively inexpensive roadways require public funding.The primary tradeoffs for this otherwise ideal system are high energy intensity and high emissions.(10) However, if the automobile is to survive as an economically sound and viable transportation system its energy consumption and harmful emissions must be reduced.The Potential Impact of New Technologies:Today, automobiles operate at approximately 15% efficiency, which means that about 15% of the energy contained in the fuel is delivered to the drive wheels as useful work. According to the best estimates, it may be possible to double automobile energy efficiency (using conventional powertrains) to about 30% before we run out of ideas. At 30% powertrain efficiency a 20- to 25-mpg sedan would then achieve fuel economy of 40 to 50 mpg. Advanced power systems and reduced vehicle roadloads are necessary in order to make significant gains in automobile energy intensity.Electric cars produce significantly fewer harmful emissions, and they save about 10% to 30% in primary energy (over the entire energy chain). Advanced fuel cell vehicles using methanol reformed on-board into hydrogen may be as much as 2-1/2 times more efficient than today’s cars. Practical automobile fuel cells, however, present enormous economic and technical challenges.In the final analysis, technology alone may not be able to solve the world’s energy problems: partly because of the limitations of technology, but primarily because of the economic realities of alternative energy systems. And even the most optimistic estimations of the energy savings obtainable with advanced-technology systems still fall short of accommodating the long-term forecasts of transportation’s energy needs.A reduction in personal transportation energy intensity is essential in order to reduce the economic impact and technical hurdles of new energy systems and more costly energy supplies. Energy conservation is the most economically sound and environmentally friendly option.Factors That Affect Personal-Transportation Energy Consumption:Transportation energy consumption depends on the mass being transported and the distance it is transported. The technologies employed determine the efficiency at which the mass is transported. Consequently, energy consumption can be reduced by developing more efficient transportation technologies, or by reducing the transported mass and/or the distance traveled.The factors of distance and mass are determined largely by social and economic structures, and by vehicle layout and configuration. In order to reduce the distance and mass factors, Paulo Solaria envisions self-sufficient cities like Arcosanti in Arizona in which automobiles are no longer needed. Telecommuting, or working at home and transferring information, rather than people, is another approach designed to reduce overall distance and mass.With revised architectures, and new business and social structures, it is possible to significantly reduce society’s transportation energy needs. The difficulties of such revisions arise from the economic burdens of restructuring cities, and the psychological resistance to large scale changes in social and business structures. The technologies, however, are largely available or just on the horizon.Reducing the transported mass, independently of the distance traveled, can also fundamentally reduce transportation’s energy requirements. Moreover, mass reduction need not affect travel habits, social and business structures, or the architecture of cities. The opport unity for a large reduction in mass becomes apparent when one considers that the vehicle itself is responsible for approximately 92% of the transported mass, while the occupants account for only 8%.(11) Most of the automobile’s energy is consumed to transport itself. Mass reduction alone can save more energy than the most advanced powertrain concepts.Matching Vehicle Size to Trip Requirements:From the traditional perspective, the â€Å"identified problem† contributing to the automobile’s high energy intensity is low vehicle occupancy. Transportation energy intensity is a measure of the energy consumed per passenger mile traveled. When a vehicle is lightly loaded, energy intensity goes up because the vehicle consumes about the same amount of energy (fuel), regardless of the number of occupants. Operating large, multi-passenger cars with only one or two occupants is therefore considered the most wasteful habit affecting the world’s consumption of transportation energy.Worldwide, automobiles operate, on average, with about 1.6 to 1.8 occupants. In the U.S., approximately 87% of all automobile trips occur with two or fewer occupants. The average for work related trips is 1.1 occupants per vehicle. One- and two-occupant trips acco unt for approximately 83% of all vehicle miles traveled in the U.S.(12)If the same number of travelers were condensed into half the cars (car pooling), total automobile energy consumption would be reduced by half. But condensing occupants into fewer vehicles essentially defeats the automobile’s primary benefit. Trips must then accommodate the needs of other occupants, and the automobile is no longer a private and personal means of transportation.Traditionally, occupancy-rate is considered a behavioral by-product and therefore outside the bounds of vehicle technology. However, if the â€Å"identified problem† were redefined, it can easily become a simple technical problem. If the definition were â€Å"inappropriate vehicle size† (rather than underutilization of large cars), the solution would then be to resize vehicles so they more closely match trip requirements. Since one- and two-occupant trips predominate, it naturally follows that a category of smaller vehicles designed for one- and two-occupant local and commuting trips would be beneficial.Low-Mass Vehicle Safety:Small, lightweight cars are normally associated with an increased risk of harm. Traffic accident statistics generally support the relationship between vehicle size and injury/fatality rates, with the potential fo r harm increasing in proportion to the decrease in vehicle size. (The exception is in Japan, where a special category of lightweight â€Å"kei† cars actually have a lower fatality rate than conventional large cars.) But with better vehicle designs, historical data can quickly become outmoded. Cars built today are four times safer than vehicles built in 1969, and they are approximately 10% smaller and 20% lighter. This is due primarily to improved safety engineering and modern safety systems.Although occupant protection becomes more challenging as vehicle size is reduced, it is technically feasible to produce significantly smaller and lighter vehicles that have a high degree of safety. Advanced â€Å"hard shell† concepts designed to increase low-mass vehicle safety are already under development in Switzerland. This new approach utilizes a rigid exterior that is largely identical to the rigid passenger compartment of conventional cars. During a collision, the rigid exterior of the smaller car causes the less rigid deformation zone of the larger car to yield and absorb energy. Passenger ride-down space (for deceleration) in the low-mass car is provided inside the vehicle, rather than by the traditional exterior deformation zone. Occupant deceleration is controlled by elastic restraints and air bags. (13)Vehicle use patterns and operating environment are also important. Cars that operate primarily in the urban environment do not necessarily have to match the crashworthiness of larger cars in order to provide equally safe transportation.New Products and New Market Appeals – The Giant Oil Well Under Detroit:Market positioning, the implied messages in a product’s theme and advertising appeals, can capitalize on today’s environmental and energy concerns, and ultimately have a powerful effect on energy consumption and pollution. The necessary consumer motivations and interests already exist. A shift in thinking that disengages manufacturers and consumers alike from the association of size and mass in relation to value in automobile design is an essential part of reducing transportation’s energy consumption.Significantly smaller and lighter cars, both electric and conventionally powered, are normally envisioned as cheap, underpowered, and unsafe vehicles that have little appeal. Once this premise is accepted, vehicle attributes consistent with the vision naturally emerge and an outline of market potential, profitability, and even vehicle styling and safety then follows suit according to the core idea. These details can quickly change when the vehicle and the market are seen from a different perspective.By adopting a new perspective on automobile design, new marketing opportunities and new product ideas can begin to take shape. By emphasizing innovative safety features, visually impressive driver information systems, advanced vehicle control and crash avoidance systems, and attractive vehicle layouts and styling, smaller urban cars and commuter cars can emerge as safe, marketable, and even superior, transportation products. Innovative product packaging and marketing appeals are essential for a successful transition to electric urban cars and fuel-efficient commuter cars.Despite today’s â€Å"green† orientation, sacrifice and conservation are not especially marketable attributes. New vehicle types must satisfy consumers’ complex psychological needs while appealing to their broad social concerns. Energy conservation and environmental protection must be positioned as an upscale product attribute, rather than as a necessary sacrifice in the name of economic and environmental health. Energy conservation and emissions reduction are not primary consumer benefits. When manufacturers address environmental concerns with attractive new vehicle themes that satisfy consumers’ psychological needs, a marketable new category of products will have emerged, and passenger-travel energy consumption could be reduced by nearly two-thirds.A Sustainable Paradigm for a Fully Industrialized World:Alternative cars alone will not create a system for long-term sustainability with the expected populations. Although transportation will be tomorrow’s largest single energy consumer (as much as 40% in the long term), combined industrial and residential needs will account for a larger portion of society’s total energy needs.Future generations will probably have to adapt to more expensive energy, and use the world’s resources more prudently. This does not necessarily point to a world of stifling scarcity, but more to a new sense of responsibility, and a new paradigm for product design and the lifestyles that interrelate to form the overall production/consumption/pollution matrix. Changes in attitudes and behavior patterns can have an enormous impact on the cost to the ecosystem in resources and pollution. Population control and new business and social structures are essential; and new technologies are needed as well.Today’s developed economies, which account for only one-fourth of the world’s inhabitants, have been fortunate to have abundant and cheap fossil energy supplies to fuel their transition into an industrialized world. In a sense, today’s developed societies are similar to yesterday’s pioneers, blazing the technology trail to a new frontier of sufficiency and sustainablity for the world’s future community of developed nations. Abundant and clean energy from nuclear fusion, along with fuel cell cars and rapid-recharging, extended-range, battery-electric cars, are probably the best hopes for meeting long-term transportation and energy needs. And new frontiers must be pioneered in attitudes and values, which ultimately convert to resource consumption and environmental degradation as they guide behavior. Just as alternative cars do not necessarily imply dull product design or reduced transportation quality, new values and social structures do not necessarily imply compromised lifestyles.